Poetics by Aristotle
Introduction
The period that witnessed the birth of great Western critics and philosophers like Plato also saw the arrival of another outstanding critic, Aristotle. He was a student of Plato. One of his essential works is Poetics. It is believed to have been composed around 330 B.C. It contains 26 chapters. It is one of the seminal works of Western literary criticism. The Poetics of Aristotle mainly deals with tragedy. Aristotle considers tragedy as the highest poetic form. He has defined a set of rules for writing a tragedy. He emphasized various aspects of tragedy, including the building of the plot, traits of the protagonist, unity of time, unity of place, unity of action, diction, poetic truth, catharsis, etc.
In Poetics, Aristotle compares tragedy with other metrical forms like epic and comedy. He states that tragedy is an imitation like poetry. However, he states that tragedy has a serious purpose and, therefore, uses direct action instead of any narrative to achieve its end.
Concept of Tragedy
Aristotle defines tragedy as “tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear affecting the proper purgation of these emotions.”
The concept of modern tragedy is different from ancient Greek tragedy. In Greek tragedy, drama is serious but does not necessarily end with bloodshed. The basic principle of tragedy was that it dealt with serious people’s serious actions, while comedy lacked serious action and was mainly concerned with comic characters.
The definition sets tragedy apart from comedy or other poetic forms by highlighting its portrayal of serious actions, contrasting with comedy’s focus on non-serious ones. Additionally, tragedy diverges from Epic in its approach to imitation; while an Epic typically narrates, tragedy is represented through action. Finally, in terms of the medium of imitation, tragedy differs from a lyric by employing diverse mediums, such as verse in dialogue and song in choric segments.
Elements of Tragedy
According to Aristotle, tragedy has six main elements: plot, character, thought, diction, spectacle, and song. Aristotle discusses them in order of their importance.
Plot
The plot (mythos in Greek) refers to the arrangement of events and episodes of a play. Aristotle states that the play’s action is of prime importance among all the six elements. For ancients, mythos meant story, which is translated into the English language as plot. He said, “All human happiness or misery takes the form of action…Character gives us qualities, but it is in our actions – what we do – that we are happy or miserable.” He states that tragedy imitates action, and there is a logical sequence of events in it. Therefore, the action it imitates is its plot and must be complete. In other words, a plot must have a beginning, middle, and ending. Exposition (beginning) is simply that point where the action starts. The follow-up action is called the middle. The middle follows what has happened in the beginning and leads to some conclusion. Resolution refers to a point in the plot whereby all the conflicts among the characters are resolved and do not lead to any further action.
The action in a tragedy must possess a certain magnitude and duration. It should be long enough to facilitate the systematic development of events leading to the catastrophe.
Aristotle introduces two types of plots: Simple and Complex. Simple plots follow consistency and do not include abrupt changes, whereas complex plots involve peripety (peripeteia) and anagnorisis, also known as discovery or recognition. Peripety denotes a sudden reversal in the story, marking an important turning point where the protagonist’s fortunes shift from good to bad.
Character
Character refers to men and women who work in a play. The hero and heroine are the most essential characters in a play. Aristotle views a protagonist or tragic hero as a person of high grace who falls from grace because of his faults. This reversal of fortune is what makes him a tragic hero. To understand a tragic hero, we can take the example of Oedipus from Sophocles Oedipus Rex. Although he belonged to a royal family, fate leads him to kill his father and marry his mother. This unfortunate event leads to a series of events, ultimately bringing Oedipus’ downfall. While Oedipus is himself responsible, the tragic flaw of hubris (pride) finally lands him in such a a situation.
Thought
Thought refers to what characters feel or think in the course of their development in the plot. Thought is normally expressed through their speeches and dialogues. Thought is the act of communication of characters. Aristotle believed tragedy is not merely a story about someone’s death or suffering. However, the story brings catharsis to the audience through the character’s thoughts. Catharsis is the release of emotions. For example, when Oedipus learns that he has killed his father and married his mother, it causes him to blind himself and leave the kingdom. The audience can experience catharsis as a result of Oedipus’ thoughts.
Diction
Diction refers to the medium through which characters reveal their innermost thoughts and emotions. While the thought relates to the substance of what is being conveyed, the diction refers to the manner in which it is expressed. There exist various methods of conveying a message. In exceptional plays, certain lines are often constructed in such a way that they linger in the minds of the audience. Therefore, Aristotle believes that diction should be precise and decorated with artistic elements.
Song
Song is considered an accessory to tragedy. The chorus’s singing conveys a fair portion of the text of the play, contributing to auditory and emotional effects.
Spectacle
The spectacle refers to the aspects of the tragedy that contribute to its sensory effects, such as costumes, scenery, and gestures. Therefore, it must be in accordance with the theme of the play. For example, when there is a death scene in the play, we expect the background of the stage to match the scene, like loud lamentation or scenes of physical torture.
Comparative Importance of Plot and Character
Aristotle clearly stated that the plot is more important than the character. He believes that there can be a tragedy without a character, but there cannot be a tragedy without a plot. To offer a comprehensive understanding of the importance of the plot, he compares the plot with the outline of a painting. Just like colors, however beautiful, have no meaning without proper management and outline; similarly, tragedy has no meaning and significance without a plot. It is indeed the plot that offers importance and meaning to the tragedy.
By plot, Aristotle does not mean merely the sequence of events but also how action proceeds at every point, leading to a conclusion. He believes that peripeteia and anagnorisis are parts of the plot. Therefore, the plot is the first essential element of tragedy. There is certainly a great sense in what he is saying. Without a good plot, the entire characterization can be a flop. Even today, people enjoy a good plot rather than a good character in any work of art, especially tragedy.
Function of Tragedy
According to Aristotle’s definition of tragedy, the primary purpose of tragedy is to evoke feelings of ‘pity’ and ‘fear’ in the audience. This concept, presented in chapter six of “Poetics,” has sparked considerable debate. The statement is: “Tragedy through pity and fear affects a purgation of such emotions.” Therefore, tragedy not only stirs powerful emotions within the audience but also creates a cathartic effect.
Terms Related to Tragedy
There are few terms that we should remember for a better understanding of the tragedy. These are: catharsis, the three unities, hamartia, climax, and denouement.
Catharsis
Aristotle describes catharsis as the purging of the emotions of pity and fear that are aroused in the viewer of a tragedy. To understand catharsis, it is essential to quote F.L Lucas: ” Catharsis means ‘Purgation’, not in the modern, but in the older, wider English sense which includes the partial removal of excess ‘humors’ “. The theory states that humors (liquids) drive human behaviors.
Therefore, catharsis refers to an emotional discharge that helps to attain the renewal of a moral or spiritual state from anxiety or depression. It is a Greek word that means cleansing. In a literary sense, it is used to cleanse the emotions of the audience. Catharsis often leads to emotional rejuvenation.
Three Unities of Tragedy
- Unity of action: Unity of action a play must have a single and connected plot to sustain the audience’s interest.
- Unity of time: Unity of time means that the action of a play must not go beyond the single revolution of the sun.
- Unity of place: it means that a play must be set at a single place or one stage. It should not represent more than one place.
Hamartia
Hamartia refers to a ‘tragic flaw’ or error in judgment of a character that eventually brings his downfall. Aristotle originated this term to describe an error or frailty that brings about misfortune for a tragic hero.
Climax
Climax means the ‘ladder’ in Greek terminology. It refers to the point in the narrative where tension or conflict hits the highest point. It is a part of the plot and can be very decisive. It is the turning point of the storyline from where rising action shifts to falling action. Thus, the climax is the point in a story when the conflict or crisis touches its highest peak.
Anagnorisis
According to Aristotle, anagnorisis refers to a moment of realization and revelation of truth for the protagonist that ultimately leads to his downfall. For instance, when Oedipus learns that he killed his father and married his mother, he blinds himself and departs from Thebes. This marks an important revelation for Oedipus.
Denouement
Denouement refers to the final resolution of a narrative plot. It exposes the mystery by bringing a logical conclusion or end to a story. For example, in a tragedy, it could be the death of the main character, protagonist, or some other character. However, in comedy, it could simply be a reunion of lovers or major characters.